A joint stocktaking of CGIAR work on forest and landscape restoration A joint stocktaking of CGIAR work on forest and landscape restoration

150 words, general objective) : The Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector represents a significant opportunity for carbon sequestration, particularly through landscape restoration. In this context, the Bonn Challenge launched in 2011 aims to restore 150 million ha of degraded landscapes by 2020 and 350 million ha by 2030. Globally, current land restoration pledges total over 160 million hectares. Land-use planning for restoration draws on large amounts of biophysical and socio-economic data, but also involves negotiations among stakeholders with competing land-use and resource agendas. The main objective of this project is to develop a new participative and easy-to-use Decision Support Systems (SDSS) to provide land-use decision makers with new spatial decision making-tool, henceforth called FORLAND. This Demonstrator project starts with the development and testing of a first module focusing on landscape restoration: FORLAND Restoration. Further future products can include: FORLAND Sustainable Forest Management (SFM), FORLAND Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG), FORLAND REDD+ (cf. Figure 1 "FORLAND Vision"). SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: Design of project-specific, tailored platforms that take into account the specific needs and requirement of each end-user. FORLAND Restoration will be developed as an easy to use and smart tool based on the day-to-day experiences of end users. Inclusion of reliable prospective simulation features based on decision makers’ choices. This objective implies the identification of needs and exploration of scenarios with the end-users, to identify and develop appropriate modeling technologies, and to design features allowing end-users to explore various assumptions and simulations themselves to foster transformative change. FORLAND will be marketed as a “Service as a Software” (SaaS). As such, FORLAND Restoration aims to facilitate collaborative work and stakeholders' consultation, and promote transparency during the feasibility and implementation stages of AFOLU projects through the use of a multi-stakeholder participative approach. Develop FORLAND Restoration as a web access/web server platform to facilitate the handling of large amount of data to process and stock, particularly due to the utilization of remote sensing data. This Demonstrator is an opportunity to implement different pilots in promising markets both in Europe and emerging countries, with high potential for replication, and to contribute to the growing pool of climate-smart solutions and innovations in restoration initiatives. OUTPUTS: tailored FORLAND web-platforms delivered to the end-user; the FORLAND service package to accompany the web-platforms and allowing an ongoing stakeholder engagement throughout the restoration process; CALL : Funding agency : KIC EU/EIT Call : KIC Climate State: Approved FUNDINGS: Total Project Costs: 2,100,000 € EIT (KIC) contribution: 1,423,000 € Co-Fundings (consortium) : 677,000 € Total budget for Cirad: 570,680 €


Introduction
Forest and landscape restoration (FLR) are gaining increased traction on the political agenda. Over the last decade, the number and importance of pledges and commitments on restoration have increased significantly at national, regional and global levels. These include the • Bonn Challenge (2011) 1 • New York Declaration on Forests (2014) 2 • Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) 3

• Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Target
Setting Programme of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) 4 • Great Green Wall Initiative 5 • African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) 6 • Initiative 20x20 in Latin America and the Caribbean 7 • Asia-Pacific Regional Strategy and Action Plan on Forest and Landscape Restoration to 2030 (APFLR). 8 On International research institutions, including the CGIAR and its centers, in collaboration with national research systems and local partners on the ground, will play a critical role. This will range from generating knowledge to supporting changes on the ground as part of a "knowledge to action" chain ( Figure 1), in order to achieve this global restoration effort.
In particular, the CGIAR and its centers need to: (i) identify the priority knowledge gaps faced by the development community; (ii) elaborate and/or assess different restoration options adapted to different contexts, as well as to the objectives and needs of different stakeholders (land users, farmers, etc.); and (iii) recommend ways and means to overcome current technical and institutional barriers and to scale up successful experiences. In 2018, three CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) -Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA); Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) and Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) -decided to work together to address these needs. There are huge opportunities in bringing the three CRPs together to work on land restoration. Each of these CRPs works on different aspects of land restoration. Pooling this evidence in a user-friendly and accessible manner holds great potential for scaling, and for delivering enhanced impact from our CGIAR research.
The three CRPs organized a joint workshop (31 August -1 September 2018, Nairobi, ICRAF Headquarters) to explore and define future collaboration on land restoration. As a first step, FTA, PIM and WLE took stock of research by the CGIAR centers and CRPs on landscape restoration, including land restoration and forest restoration. A survey was conducted in the 3 CRPs (FTA, PIM, WLE) and circulated to the other CRPs, inviting contributions (templates in Appendix 1). The answers to this survey (see Appendix 2) reflect the broad range of CGIAR's specific contributions to knowledge, methods, planning, modeling, action on the ground, assessment and evaluation.
This document is a preliminary analysis of the survey results. After a first section on scope, material and methods, it analyses the answers received according to three categories of research for/in development interventions or outputs: case studies and projects; tools for development; analyses and conceptual frameworks (see Section 2.2 for more details). It also discusses some main results across these functional categories.

Scope
Beyond the narrow approach that considers "restoration" as the return to the initial, pristine, undisturbed state of an ecosystem, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and other partners have adopted a wider definition for the Bonn Challenge: 11 "Forest landscape restoration (FLR) is the ongoing process of regaining ecological functionality and enhancing human wellbeing across deforested or degraded forest landscapes. FLR is more than just planting trees -it is restoring a whole landscape to meet present and future needs and to offer multiple benefits and land uses over time." The IUCN and its partners have identified the following guiding principles of FLR: (i) focus on landscapes; (ii) maintain and enhance natural ecosystems within landscapes; (iii) engage stakeholders and support participatory governance; (iv) tailor to the local context using a variety of approaches; (v) restore multiple functions for multiple benefits; and (vi) manage adaptively for long-term resilience.
Building on this IUCN definition, and following the discussions during the Nairobi joint workshop (see Box 1), the three CRPs considered a broader scope of land restoration, encompassing any kind of forest and agricultural landscapes all along the "forest transition curve" illustrated in Figure 2.
Encompassing any kind of ecosystem, this approach to restoration gives central place to the concept of "ecological functions", i.e. the functions that allow ecosystems to generate various regulating, supporting, provisioning and cultural services (MA 2005; see also Figure 3), including those generating economic value.
In this document, in line with the definitions highlighted in Box 1, restoration is defined as all the "efforts to secure recovery of ecological functions allowing the long-term productive use of land", contributing to halt and reverse past or ongoing degradation.
These "efforts" cover a broad range of restoration interventions -from land-use practices and land-use changes to physical | 5 13 on Asia; 8 on Latin America; and 24 were either cross-regional or global ( Table 1).
In each region, some countries emerge as places of concentration of projects. Table 2 shows, for the main countries of concentration, the projects focusing on (or including a component on) these countries.
Initially, this survey aimed to inform the mapping of past and recent restoration activities of the CGIAR. However, out of 76 answers analysed, only 21 describe past projects. In all, 55 answers describe ongoing projects 12 , of which 24 were still at a too early stage (inception, data collection or development phase) to properly assess their impacts, either on the ground and/or in terms of publications. Some answers did not provide enough information to be fully integrated into the analysis at this stage.
Of the answers, 45 focused explicitly on restoration. For 31 answers, the main focus was not restoration but other issues, closely or more indirectly related to restoration. Beyond forest and landscape restoration, other salient topics emerged from the answers. These comprised sustainable land management (18 answers), including 8 that presented tools to monitor and map soil information and 2 focusing more on sustainable water management; genetic diversity and seed supply systems in restoration projects (13 answers); climate change -adaptation and/or mitigation (13 answers); and land tenure security and land governance reform (5 answers).
Most contributions operated at landscape level (30 answers) or across multiple scales (31 answers) -from plot, farm and landscape to national, regional and global levels. This focus may reflect the importance of the landscape level for effective restoration interventions as this level combines an integrated perspective that allows synergies among different ecosystem components and functions with a deep knowledge of, and a fine adaptation to, local conditions.
To facilitate the analysis, the survey distinguished three broad functional categories of contributions. They correspond to the description of three types of research for/in development interventions Table 1  However, four answers did not use the template questionnaires proposed for this survey. Moreover, in some cases, respondents used a template that was not the one dedicated to the corresponding functional category (see Appendix 1). Some also placed a research project in a category that was not considered the most appropriate by the team preparing this analysis. A new categorization is therefore proposed for such cases (15 answers) after internal discussion. As per this new categorization, 39 answers were classified as CSP, 22 as T4D and 12 as ACF. They are presented in more detail in the next sections. This category gathers 39 answers, either pilot projects or up-scaling, comprising an element of field research. These include experimental plots, trials, local capacity building and implementation, on-the-ground assessments and surveys at different scales.

Functional sub-categories
The following functional sub-categories of CSP can be distinguished:

Capacity building (13 answers)
This sub-category gathers the projects and activities contributing to build capacities at different levels (local, national and regional: see #8) through the promotion of a specific combination of • innovative tools, techniques and practices, such as sustainable land and water management tools and practices (#14, #57); analytic tools on land degradation dynamics, 13 including mobile tools such 13 In particular, this project (#73) uses the Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF framework) described in project (#77), see Annex.

Field research/case studies (11 answers)
This sub-category includes case studies aiming at learning from past successes and evaluating possible restoration options. These case studies seek to overcome current barriers and scale up restoration initiatives (#5, #15, #22, #26, #74) or to link broader research frameworks to on-theground experiments and implementation (#18). This sub-category also includes five case studies focusing on land tenure security in Madagascar and Ethiopia (#7), Laos (#17, #29) and Myanmar (#16, #48).

Thematic categories: Topics covered
The broad definition of restoration adopted for this survey (see Section 2.1 on the scope) encompasses any kind of ecosystem. Thus, one could consider that most, if not all, CGIAR research projects contribute, directly or indirectly, to forest and landscape restoration.
In particular, all the projects striving for sustainable intensification or sustainable land management can be classified under the first level of restoration intensity (i.e. "ecological intensification", see Section 6.4.1, Box 2).
However, it seems useful to distinguish in this synthesis two categories of CSPs: • "restoration-focused projects" where forest and land degradation is the main entry point and restoration is the main objective. • "restoration-related projects" that can contribute to forest and landscape restoration while following other objectives (such as sustainable intensification or climate-smart agriculture). In these projects, restoration can appear as a secondary objective or as a co-benefit of the project. These projects can also promote an enabling environment likely to facilitate future restoration efforts.
Of the 39 CSPs analysed, 24 projects have restoration as their main focus, while 15 focus on other issues more or less directly related to restoration.

Restoration-focused projects (24 answers)
These answers can be grouped around five main topics: Assessing and/or upscaling landscape restoration (12 answers) A main objective of these projects is to identify and assess restoration practices to learn from (#22, #74) and scale up (#5, #73, #76) successful experiences. For instance, two projects focus on the practice of enclosing degraded lands in Tanzania (#26) and Ethiopia (#56). The projects in this category cover various agroecosystems, including degraded forests and agroforestry in Ethiopia (#5); agroforestry in Vietnam (#74); dry rangelands in Ethiopia (#15); dry forest in Colombia (#20); and steep hillsides and wetlands in the Tana Basin, Kenya (#58). Some projects compare restoration practices and initiatives across different countries or provinces (#19, #22, #69, #73), while others compare the performance of different restoration interventions in the same ecosystem (e.g. #5, #74).
Seeds and genetic diversity (6 answers) Two projects focus on capacity building and organization of the seed sector. They aim at delivering adequate planting material for forest restoration to enhance productivity, and hence food security and nutrition, income and livelihoods resilience for poor smallholder households (#10, #53). Four projects assess the performance of seed supply systems for landscape restoration at different scales (#21, #41, #42, #47). According to the respondents, four projects are still at a too early stage of development to be fully analysed here (#10, #21, #42, #47).
Climate change and climate-smart restoration (4 answers) One project uses demonstration and trial plots to identify suitable species for bioenergy production on degraded land that contribute to climate change mitigation, while providing a range of socio-economic and environmental benefits (#4). Another one assesses carbon stocks, greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes, and rates of sedimentation and subsidence in mangrove and peatland ecosystems across the tropics. This aims to estimate their state of degradation and restoration needs (#6). Two other projects aim at creating climate-smart landscapes through integrated land and water management practices and capacity building at different scales in the Gambia River Basin (#8) and Ethiopia (#57).
Combating desertification and sand fixation (2 answers) The "Great Green Wall" is a regional initiative for the Sahara and the Sahel, endorsed in 2007 by the African Union Assembly of Heads of States and Governments. It combats | 9 desertification and aims to transform the lives of millions of people (#2). Since 1959, around 10,000 ha of trees were planted along 185 kilometers (km) of the coastline between Dakar and St. Louis, Senegal. The project aims to protect local vegetable irrigated production systems (niayes) and road access from sand dune encroachment (#3).

Restoration-related projects (15 answers)
These answers can be grouped around five main topics: Land tenure security and land governance reform (5 answers) These projects focus on land tenure security as a critical factor of restoration. They try to link farmers' strategies to strengthen their land rights at local level with land governance reform at the national level (#7, #16, #17, #29, #48). In Myanmar (#16, #48), international donors have used key findings from the research to help guide ongoing land governance reform. In Laos (#17, #29), the research presented land-use planning as a power game, then incorporated it as part of the teaching program in national universities in Laos and Thailand.

Sustainable land management (4 answers)
These projects contribute to capacity building at local level by promoting sustainable practices and technologies and participatory governance mechanisms (#9). They implement or scale up collective approaches such as participatory rangeland management (#39) or joint village land-use planning (#40). They contribute tobuild multi-stakeholder decisionmaking bodies, such as innovation platforms and village development committees (#11).
They focus on agroforestry and forestry systems in Sulawesi Indonesia (#9), arid districts of Western Rajasthan in India (#11) or on rangelands in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania (#39, #40). They all aim at improving incomes and livelihoods of farmers and local communities.
Climate-smart agriculture (3 answers) Two projects aim at building resilience and adaptation to climate extremes and disasters (BRACED Programme) in agricultural landscapes in Chad (#59) and in cocoa production in Ivory Coast (#60). The last project assesses climate-smart agricultural practices at farm and landscape levels on two sites in Ethiopia (#70).

Smart water management (2 answers)
Smart water management (SWM) can help address water scarcity, recharge groundwater reserves and improve land productivity. Low-cost water harvesting structures can limit surface run-off and ensure a reliable water supply all year long (#13). By monitoring soil moisture and nutrients, SWM tools help farmers optimize fertilizer application and irrigation, thus increasing water productivity and profitability (#14).
Collective farming (1 answer) This research from the IWMI explores how collective farming can drive agricultural productivity without further marginalizing smallholders who individually cannot participate in the transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture proposed by the government in Nepal. It aims at identifying strengths and weaknesses in the ongoingadoption of collective farming (#18).
This category gathers 22 answers that aim at elaborating tools that can facilitate decision making and/or stakeholder negotiations e.g. models, guidelines and manuals, indicators and metrics, and soil and water management tools. Two functional sub-categories can be distinguished, namely decision-making supporting tools; and models and maps. The second category can also serve as the first layer for decision-making supporting tools as needed.

Decision-making supporting tools (8 answers)
This sub-category regroups tools, methods and guidelines, directed at decision makers or restoration practitioners at different levels, to support decision making.
Between 2014 and 2018, Bioversity International developed a tool for guiding species and seed selection to improve the effectiveness of restoration under climate change in Colombia's tropical dry forest (#31). This project needs to be finalized and its results communicated.
Three projects from Bioversity International aim to develop tools for laying the foundations for climate-smart restoration of tropical dry forests in Peru (#30) and Burkina Faso (#32), as well as in savanna zones and forest/savanna mosaic landscapes in Cameroon (#33). All these tools aim at improving the effectiveness of restoration under climate change by considering suitability of species and genetic origin. The project in Burkina Faso (#32) puts a particular emphasis on food tree species for nutrition-sensitive restoration. All these projects started in 2018 and are not advanced enough to be more deeply analysed at this stage.
The FORLAND project (#51), led by ONF-I, also falls under this sub-category. This project, a collaboration with CIRAD and ETH-Zurich, is funded by the European Institute of Innovation & Technology. It will develop a new spatial, participative and easy-to-use land-use decision-making tool, whose first module will focus on landscape restoration. Future modules should include FORLAND Sustainable Forest Management (SFM); FORLAND Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG); and FORLAND REDD+. Similarly, CIAT is developing, first in Ethiopia, a "Landscape Doctor" (#64), i.e. a set of decision tools to be used by planners, investors and other decision-makers for initial diagnosis, as well as for solution design and implementation, considering site and context specificities.
Finally, ICRISAT is developing good practice guidelines for restoring productive capacity of dryland in Niger, as well as tools, methods and guidelines for scaling these good restoration practices (#12). The final objective is to reduce food insecurity and improve livelihoods of poor people in African drylands. To that end, the project aims to restore degraded land, thereby increasing land profitability, as well as landscape and livelihood resilience. Likewise, ICRAF published a working paper in 2018 that presents a decision analysis methods' guide. It can help decision makers enhance the effectiveness of agricultural policy for nutrition and allocate resources more efficiently (#68).

Models and maps (14 answers)
This sub-category regroups maps and models, measuring at different scales the intensity of degradation (i.e. efforts needed for restoration) or modeling the impacts of different land-use changes or land management practices.
This sub-category includes six tools developed by WLE to model and map soil information. These tools comprise soil information maps (#61, #65, #67); a bush encroachment map in Namibia (#62); risk maps of soil nutrient deficiencies in two villages of Western Kenya (#63); and a soil organic content computation tool available in open-access through a mobile phone app (#66). Three tools focus on Africa (#61, #62, #63), while three are applicable anywhere (#65, #66, #67).
Since 2005, ICRAF has developed the Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF) and applied it in over 250 landscapes (100 km 2 sites) across more than 30 countries (#75, #77). The LDSF provides a field protocol for assessing soil and ecosystem health 14 to help decision makers to prioritize, monitor and track restoration interventions (#75, #77). The nested hierarchical sampling design used in the LDSF is useful for developing predictive models with global coverage, while maintaining local relevance (#77).
One CIFOR project (#23) aims to map the forest biomass accumulation potential as a proxy for climate change mitigation potential in Latin America. It uses a minimum mapping unit of approximately 6 ha. The resulting map, in publication, will be directed to governments and donors interested in prioritizing hotspots in degraded forested landscapes in Latin America. Another project (#54) produced a "vegetation map" that covers eight countries 14 Using indicators such as vegetation cover, structure and floristic compositions, tree and shrub biodiversity, historic land use, visible signs of land degradation, and physical and chemical characteristics of soil (including soil organic carbon content and infiltration capacity).
in Eastern and southern Africa. When complemented by a species selection tool, this map can help restoration practitioners to "find the right tree for the right place." ILRI provides two answers that describe models of rangeland/grazing management developed at local/landscape (#27) and global (#28) scales. Three SWAT 15 models of grazing management (#27) were constructed in collaboration with and based on the knowledge of local and regional partners and institutions in the Lower Tana River Basin (Kenya) and in Yatenga province (Burkina Faso). Government officials (at national and local levels) use these models to develop legislation on rangeland management in consultation with local communities and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). ILRI also developed a G-Range model of rangeland management (#28), applicable at global scale over long-term horizons. This helps formulate policy decisions based on projected future rangeland conditions and long-term system production potential, under climate change.
Since 2014, in Apurimac (Peru), CIRAD and CIFOR have been developing and applying several methods for analyzing, modeling and mapping the effects of forest-cover change on multiple ecosystem services and their implications for human well-being. They are also developing methods to analyse the trade-offs between these ecosystem services (#24).
IFPRI is developing an analytical model to assess the economics of land degradation (ELD), based on 12 case-study countries 16 (#72). This ELD approach not only considers the conventional market value of crop and livestock products lost because of land degradation but seeks also to capture the loss of terrestrial ecosystem services.
This last category, comprising 12 answers, covers more theoretical work. It includes evaluations, conceptual frameworks, systematic literature and/or project reviews, as well as meta-analyses. Two functional sub-categories can be distinguished: (i) conceptual approaches and frameworks; and (ii) systematic reviews.

Conceptual approaches and frameworks (8 answers)
This sub-category comprises projects and activities aiming at developing or applying integrated, conceptual or theoretical frameworks around FLR and related issues.
It includes four studies focusing on seeds, genetic resources and genetic diversity. One study (2018 -2022) is (i) developing indicators of genetic diversity of native tree species; (ii) building a theoretical framework for planning genetic conservation units for native tree species in South-Eastern Asia, as a foundation of resilient seed systems; and (iii) examining the social barriers to resilient community-based seed system establishment for restoration (#43). Another one (2018 -2019) develops a theoretical framework for the economic evaluation of genetic diversity in forest landscape restoration using economic simulation models (#46). According to respondents, both projects are still at the inception phase. Another project (#45) is a thematic study for the State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources (FAO 2014). It aims to help restoration practitioners, policy makers and scientists to better understand the importance of genetic diversity for restoring viable and resilient forest ecosystems. It also helps better integrate key genetic considerations into restoration practices, policies and strategies. The fourth answer (#55) presents an integrated flagship approach to manage tree genetic resources in support of forest and landscape restoration -from conservation and domestication to delivery.
One study (#35) proposes an integrated framework to assess or design "climatesmart restoration", based on a review of multiple projects. The objective is to guide decision makers in analyzing the contribution of restoration to climate change strategies and in managing the trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation.
The last three answers refer to conceptual approaches that are not strictly focused on restoration. ICRAF (#37) seeks to improve land management and enhance livelihoods in Indonesia through a farmer-to farmer approach. CIMMYT developed an integrated flagship approach (#36) to boost sustainable intensification of crop systems (wheat and maize). CIAT focuses on sustainable intensification in farming communities, trying to improve on-farm soil fertility; off-farm soil and water conservation; and carbon, water and nutrient cycles in the landscape (#71).

Systematic reviews (4 answers)
This sub-category includes systematic literature and/or project reviews and metaanalyses on different topics linked to restoration.
Since 2008, CIRAD and CIFOR (#25) have realized several meta-analyses or systematic reviews at different scales -from plot and 5 Approaches and conceptual frameworks (ACF) watershed to region and continent, on the impacts of forest restoration on water flows, soil erosion, soil mass movements and local to regional climate, with the view to guide decision-making on land management and restoration.
Between 2015 and 2017, Bioversity International realized a global survey on seed sourcing practices for restoration (#44). This was based on a review of 136 restoration projects across 57 countries. It identified typologies of projects and of their seed sourcing practices and assessed how these practices affect restoration outcomes (Jalonen et al. 2018).
The two last studies, which focus on landscape restoration, are based on systematic reviews of literature and restoration projects. CIFOR (#34) examines the links between restoration, adaptation to climate change, food security and nutrition. For its part, ICRAF (#38) explores the principles of good governance in restoration projects, as well as related institutional dynamics, development challenges and needed incentives.
These four studies explicitly seek to guide decision making on land management and restoration. To that end, they develop highlevel policy recommendations for governments, international organizations, political decision makers or restoration practitioners involved in land management and land restoration.
Based on elements identified by respondents during the survey, this section will initiate a discussion toward a categorization of various restoration options in different contexts (which would also need to be categorized). When needed, the discussion will refer to specific contributions as numbered in Appendix 2.
Where appropriate, this discussion will also use the conceptual framework discussed during the joint Nairobi workshop. In particular, it will draw on the list of questions presented by Meine van Noordwijk and illustrated in     Of course, all restoration projects and activities shall directly contribute to "protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, (…) halt and reverse land degradation" (SDG15). However, the answers show that forest and landscape restoration is a cross-cutting effort. As such, it is likely to be instrumental to achieve not only SDG15, but also most of the SDGs: At the local level, respondents highlight weak local institutions (#11); diminishing customary authority (#39, #40); limited engagement with local communities (#3, #56); implementation barriers to efficient local land-use planning (#29); and social barriers to resilient community-based seed system establishment for restoration (#43).
The replies give some elements of answer to the following questions around the "Who?": • "Who does?": who are the actors of past and current degradations and of restoration efforts? • "Who cares?": who bears the costs, who reaps the benefits, how equitable are restoration interventions (#19)? • "Used by whom?": who are the end-users of restoration tools and approaches?
To categorize these stakeholders two complementary approaches can be followed, described below.

A rights-based approach
A human rights perspective makes a fundamental distinction between "right-holders" (i.e. citizens, particularly the most vulnerable) and "duty-bearers" (mainly states with the obligation to respect, protect and fulfill citizens' rights). Violations of human rights, by states or non-state actors (including private actors), must also be considered (HLPE 2018).
Land degradation and restoration efforts particularly affect the rights (including right to food; water sanitation and hygiene; and land tenure security) of those people, often among the most vulnerable and food insecure people, that depend exclusively or importantly on natural resources for their subsistence and livelihoods. In that sense, multi-stakeholder partnerships, bodies or innovation platforms mentioned in the answers (#11, #14, #22, #58) cover many kinds of collaborative arrangements among stakeholders from two or more different spheres of society (HLPE 2018). Note that, depending on their statutory objectives and legal status, research institutions and farmers' organizations can fall under any of the three spheres mentioned above.

By scale and leading/ funding partner
Building upon some of the answers, a more pragmatic approach to sort out restoration interventions could be adopted. They could be classified by scale (local vs. national, regional and global approach) and leading or funding partner (public, private or civil society organization: see Section 6.3). See for instance: • "community-led solutions for sustainable land management in Western Rajasthan in India" (#11) • a "household-based restoration approach promoted by local association in Burkina (tiipaalga)" (#21).

By domains of intervention
The answers to the survey also suggest another pragmatic approach to the typology of restoration interventions, which could be classified by domains of interventions. Such an analysis could contribute to illustrate and refine the above-mentioned conceptual typology around restoration intensity.
The following categories of restoration projects and activities can be identified, building on replies to the survey and on previous discussions (Sections 3 to 5):

Sustainable management practices
This category gathers restoration interventions, mainly at plot and farm level, aiming at improving the management practices of land and other natural resources (water, energy, biodiversity…), in order to improve productivity, resource-use efficiency and resilience (#10). These restoration interventions refer mostly to the first levels of intensity mentioned above -(i) ecological intensification and (ii) recovery/regeneration -and often operate within existing land use.
In this category, the answers mention for instance: • farmland management (#69); evergreen agriculture (#73); sustainable production (#60); sustainable intensification and productivity enhancement interventions (forestry, agriculture and/or livestock) This category of interventions generally involves a range of practices. They can also operate at wider scale. For instance, the "Great Green Wall" is a regional initiative that evolved from the idea of a line of trees into the vision of a great mosaic of green and productive landscapes from east to west across the Sahara and the Sahel (#2).
These interventions can be linked to a change in land use and correspond mainly to the last levels of restoration intensity -(iii) reparation/recuperation and (iv) remediation.
This category also includes the establishment of all the physical or immaterial infrastructures needed to improve • access to land and natural resources, in particular for women (#9, #40); • access to markets (#3, #11, #15), including road access (#3) or improved value chains (#9).

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Access to markets includes access to goods and services, and to input and output markets. Seeds have been mentioned above as a critical input for restoration. Hence, establishing strong national seed supply systems (#41, #47) or gene banks (#52, #55) can play a crucial role for the efficiency of restoration efforts in a country.

Institutional changes and incentives
Technical changes in land use and land management practices will not be enough.
Institutional changes, at local and national levels, are needed to support restoration efforts. The answers try to identify good governance principles, institutional dynamics, development challenges and incentives 21 needed in restoration projects (#38, #56).
They study the political, legal and administrative frameworks (#18, #22), as well as the institutional dynamics behind public, private or public-private restoration initiatives (#22). Many projects aim at delivering policy recommendations for decision makers at different levels (e.g. Section 5.1) to influence national policy and legislation (#39, #40).
As mentioned above, the answers identify land tenure security as a critical institutional factor of restoration. This category includes all the projects that elaborate conceptual approaches and frameworks generating theoretical knowledge at different scales (Section 5), and apply them in different contexts (Section 3.1: "field assessments", "field research/case studies"). It includes all the models and tools, sometimes integrating different forms of knowledge, including local knowledge (#27), that support decision making at different scales (from local to global) by different stakeholders (from farmers, restoration practitioners to government officials) (see Section 4). Such projects and activities can also contribute to monitoring and evaluation (#10, #18, #41). Beyond forest and landscape restoration, this preliminary analysis identified other salient issues closely linked to restoration: sustainable land management (18 answers) and sustainable water management (2 answers); genetic diversity and seed supply systems (13 answers); climate changeadaptation and/or mitigation -(13 answers); land tenure security and land governance reform (5 answers).
From this preliminary analysis, some aspects seem less covered. For instance, if many projects focus on the technical performance of different restoration practices, only a few focus on the economics of land degradation and restoration (e.g. #19, #20, #46, #72). Few projects investigate power structures, power asymmetries and power games, and most of these focus on land tenure security (#16, #17, #18, #29). One answer (#22) focuses on the political economy underlying the official political discourse and seeks possible ways to unlock the investment constraint. To that end, it tries to better understand the dynamics between regulations and incentives in public-, private-and public-private restoration initiatives in Central America.
The answers received identify five critical factors of success for restoration interventions: (i) secure tenure and use rights; (ii) access to markets (for inputs and outputs) and services; (iii) access to information, knowledge and know-how associated with sustainable and locally adapted land use and land management practices; (iv) status of local ecosystem services, often used as a baseline to assess the level of degradation; and (v) potential contribution to global ecosystem services likely to attract international donors.
This preliminary analysis could be a starting point to elaborate a typology of restoration options in different contexts, at different stages of the forest transition curve. In particular, the previous discussion (Section 6) provides some first elements contributing to the description of the different contexts where restoration is needed. This description should include an illustration of current national and local conditions (biophysical, socio-economic and institutional); an assessment of current land use and land management practices; and identification of the main causes of degradation (Section 6.2) in a given context. Section 6.4 then suggests some elements of answer to the "How?" question, presenting different kinds of restoration interventions. Section 6.1 illustrates how the SDGs could constitute an overall framework in which could be inscribed such a typology.
Further collaborative activities could be developed among the three CRPs on the themes highlighted above. This preliminary analysis also identifies some countries concentrating many answers where such collaborations might be easier and fruitful.

Scale:
Landscape: Mt Aigoual, Cevennes National Park. This granite and schist outcrop is a major water catchment area in the Massif Central, located where clouds from the cold Atlantic converge with warm Mediterranean air currents. The heavy rainfall has given the mountain its name: originally "Aiqualis" ('the watery one'). In an average year rainfall can measure up to 2250 mm, making it the wettest place in France. Mont Aigoual forms part of the watershed between the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The meteorological observatory was built in 1887 by the French Rivers Authority and Forestry Commission under the direction of forester George Fabre. It is currently occupied by the French meteorological service (Météo France) and is the last remaining weather station still inhabited by meteorologists.

Driver of degradation addressed/reversed: First law on Restauration des Terrains de Montagnes
(RTM) adopted in July 1860. Small-scale reforestation of ca. 2.700 ha and a reforestation manual developed by foresters such as Pessard after 1865. Large-scale deforestation and land degradation emerged by the 1870s due to extensive overgrazing (sheep), charcoal production for glass-making and blacksmithing and firewood collection to sustain the European silk industry during the cold winter months. Siltation of the port in Bordeaux led to a federal decision to commit additional resources to support the implementation of a second Law on RTM promulgated in 1882.
Stage of the forest transition curve: Sandy Mather's forest transition curve ideas were developed based on data spanning 150 years from Mt. Aigoual, Cevennes, France -a formerly degraded, now forested landscape managed as both protection and production forests. Large areas of abandoned chestnut terraces. Small wood-processing industry in Le Vigan.

Entry point:
Biophysical (soil, vegetation): Loss of soil and siltation of the port in Bordeaux associated with storms and torrential rain in the Massif Central. Economics, livelihoods: Loss of rural livelihoods due to the agrarian crisis in the Cevennes after the 1870s that led to massive out-migration, sale of abandoned agricultural land and reforestation with (Austrian) black pine Governance, institutions: Opportunistic behaviour by the Eaux et Forets Department to acquire abandoned agricultural land to "create" opportunities for rural employment through reforestation of the abandoned land using the second albeit more restrictive law on RTM adopted in 1882 Short description of the project The Mt. Aigoual massif forms part of the (now) Cevennes National Park. By the 1870s large-scale outmigration by smallholders who were unable to sustain their livelihoods, enabled the Forestry Department to acquire the abandoned agricultural land to reforest 16

What helped?
The perceived threat of serious economic losses associated with the siltation of the port in Bordeaux (then France's third major port), led to additional political and financial support for the second RTM law. Two individuals of environmental calculation (cf. Latour's Science in Action) -a forester and a botanist -also played critical roles in supporting the establishment of a meteorological station, an arboretum and in acquiring abandoned agricultural land for reforestation after 1887 although earlier reforestation efforts had started after 1865.
Main constraints? Socio-economic opportunities in the Cevennes remain limited. Tourism now provides seasonal employment. Large areas of abandoned terraced chestnut plantations but contemporary opposition to road-based transport from environmental groups limits supplying some pulp and paper mills in France which import raw materials from i.a. Venezuela.

Evidence of impact:
Reforestation bolstered by establishment of a key meteorological observatory and an arboretum both of which are now recognized tourist attractions bringing more than 150,000 visitors per year. Replanting with a monospecific species restored the degraded land and has enabled the Forestry Department to combine both protection and production functions in a critical watershed.  Contrary to Stebbing's assertions of increasing 'desertification', the Anglo-French Forestry Commission concluded, "It seems that dry and wet periods, of short and variable duration, follow each other. They do not demonstrate any tendency towards a permanent change in climate. The vegetation follows this rhythm, with regeneration taking place readily in the wetter years but with greater difficulty in dry years". The Commission failed to record any large-scale sand movement, ancient dunes were anchored by grass and woody vegetation and no agricultural land was threatened by sand. Some authors considered Stebbing's notion of the "encroachment of the Sahara" to be inappropriate (Jones, 1938).

Results:
The "two green wall" project was abandoned due to the outbreak of WWII in 1939, the same year that the Belgian colonial administration started the largest single European investment in agricultural/natural resources research in sub-Saharan Africa at the Yangambi station on the Congo River in Congo-Belge.
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts: The colonial efforts to stop the advance of the Sahara failed but spawned a post-independence equivalent -the so-called Great Green Green Wall (GGW) project. A coalition of organizations have reportedly mobilized more than US$100 million to restore degraded lands across a 15 km wide belt stretching across North, West and the Horn of Africa. Claims that the GGW initiative can be attributed to the travels across the Sahara by a Baha'i's traveller in 1952 (Richard St. Barbe Baker, the so-called 'Man of the Trees', and author of Sahara Challenge (1954) and Sahara Conquest (1966) and his plans for a 50 km wide "green frontier") have little basis in longer-term historical evidence.
What did it help? The Anglo-French Forestry Commission drew attention to the perceived problem of 'savannization', now more commonly referred to as 'desertification', notably after the creation of the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office after the 1977 Nairobi conference. The contemporary Great Green Wall, or Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative (French: Grande Muraille Verte pour le Sahara et le Sahel) is a flagship initiative to combat the effects of climate change and desertification that is led by the African Union. It aims to transform the lives of millions of people by creating a great mosaic of green and productive landscapes across North Africa, the Sahel and the Horn of Africa. From the initial idea of a line of trees from east to west through the African desert, the vision of a Great Green Wall has evolved into that of a mosaic of interventions addressing the challenges facing the people in the Sahel and the Sahara. As a programming tool for rural development the overarching goal of this sub-regional partnership is to strengthen the resilience of the region's people and natural systems with sound ecosystem management, the protection of rural heritage, and the improvement of the living conditions of the local population.
Main constraints? Simplistic solutions to land degradation -plant trees to stop the process of 'savannization' (or 'desertification') were unlikely to have succeeded even if implemented. Tenure rights to land were ignored in the colonial era (Pogucki's four-volume tenure study commissioned by the Protectorate of the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast Colony emerged after the Anglo-French Forestry Commission in the mid-1950s. This was driven, however, by the interests associated with post-WWII Colonial Welfare and Development Act grants. These were to be used i.a. to produce vegetable oils that ultimately led -as was the case in Tanzania  . This then led to the development of a Harmonized regional strategy for implementation of the Great Green Wall Initiative of the Sahara and the Sahel that was adopted in September 2012 by the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN). In 2014, the EU and FAO, in collaboration with African and other regional partners, launched the Action Against Desertification program to build on the GGWSSI. The Drylands Monitoring Week (January 2015) aimed to assess the state of drylands measurement and to initiate collaboration toward large-scale, comprehensive monitoring.
Some localized progress has been made including planning (including choices of vegetation and work with local populations in several countries) and planting/land restoration including in Ethiopia, Senegal, Nigeria, and Sudan.

Evidence of impact:
A rigorous historical analysis helps to reverse popular myths about the more recent roles of 'individuals (and centres) of environmental calculation' (drawing on the work of French sociologist Bruno Latour and his seminal book Science in Action), and the continued importance of discourses to such centres (or individuals). Centres of 'desertification' calculation can be observed at a variety of scales, from the individual to supranational regions for more than a century, and have contributed significantly to the construction and dissemination of scientific, geographical and other forms of knowledge with reference to the 'desertification' debate. They play a fundamental role in perpetuating simplistic ideas for political action by groups of actors each with their own vested interests even in the face of contradictory evidence (see, for example, Olsson et al, 2015). Speculation about the climatology of droughts in West Africa is unresolved, as is speculation about the effects of land clearance on rainfall and about land degradation in the Sudano-Sahelian region. Recent findings suggest a consistent trend of increasing vegetation greenness in much of the region. Increasing rainfall over the last few years is certainly one reason, but does not fully explain the change. Other factors, such as land use change migration, may also have contributed.
The repetition of a standard response to quintessential environmental change in the Sahel may also be suggestive of the "poverty of policy options" to address the complexity of land degradation in drylands.   (Grainger, 1990) and threatening customary vegetable production systems in the coastal 'niayes'.

Selected references
Stage of the forest transition curve: Not relevant as a littoral landscape distinguished by an inland depression where local farmers able to intensively produce irrigated vegetables for urban markets. 9,000 people scattered across 16 large villages affected by sand dune encroachment and potentially limiting production on their 'niayes', as well as disruption of road access to markets.

Entry point:
Biophysical (soil, vegetation) -Coastal sand dune fixation Economics, livelihoods -Risk of loss of livelihoods due to sand dunes rendering the 'niayes' unproductive.
Governance, institutions -Limited early attention given to governance although later projects did encourage more engagement with local communities by planting individual and collective woodlots and windbreaks.

Short description of the project:
Efforts to address sand dune encroachment were initiated in 1908 during the colonial period (GGAOF). Casuarina equisetifolia was introduced in 1925 and early efforts at scale along part of the Senegalese coast were undertaken between 1948-1959. The Forestry Service with support from IFAD continued this and planted 700 ha between 1959-1973. After 1975 three projects funded by CIDA, USAID and UNSO (Sweden) planted 9.600 ha along 185 km of the coastline between Dakar and St. Louis using primarily Casuarina equisetifolia with trees protected on the seaward side by woven brushwood panels made of Gueira senegalensis anchored with sticks of Euphorbia balsamifera. This stabilized sand dune encroachment and enabled farmers to continue to produce vegetables on their 'niayes'. Additional inland (ca. 3 km) windbreaks were also planted.

Results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) 250 m wide belt of Casuarina equisetifolia successfully planted to protect the 'niayes', and some access routes over a period of 30+ years. Limited engagement with local population during the early years.

What has helped?
Large and continuous grants provided by the international community over a long period and a competent Forestry Service enabled a technocentric approach to succeed in stabilizing sand dune encroachment in Senegal. These projects were finalized before the decentralization reforms were completed and hence, it remains unclear who or what structure has responsibility for the management of the planted belt. Once dunes have been fixed using e.g. Casuarina equisetifolia, they need to be fixed permanently by establishing perennial tree or shrub cover. There is no longer the risk of these being destroyed by moving sands, that might otherwise have exposed plant roots or damaged their aerial parts through abrasion. Usable woody species should be drought resistant, need few nutrients, withstand wide variations in temperature (night/day), and resist very strong winds. Such species include the North African Calligonum (shrubs), Hedysarum argentatum, Lycium vitricalum, Nitraria retusa, Polygonum equisetiforme, Zygophyllum album, and others such as Callotropis, Balanites, Prosopis, Tamarix, Casuarina, Australian acacias, some eucalypts, etc.

Main constraints?
Limited government funding and little engagement by the local population may restrict longer-term efforts to maintain the coastal belt to prevent future sand dune encroachment. Risks that sand dunes remain active even 15 years after stabilization (see Ba et al, 2004).

Evidence of impact:
250 m wide belt of Casuarina equisetifolia successfully planted to protect the 'niayes'. A total of 10.300 ha restored over a period of 30+ years An additional 1.000 ha of inland dunes protected and/or to act as wind breaks were planted with Acacia holosericea and Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Lessons learned (USAID, 2014)
In terms of USAID's own review of lessons learned and refining the vision for integrated natural resource management programming, eleven key lessons emerged after 30 years viz., 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The project aims to identify suitable species for bioenergy production on degraded land that contribute to climate change mitigation while providing a range of socio economic and environmental benefits. It is carried out in Central and East Kalimantan provinces by establishing trial plots of a number of bioenergy species. The project also conducted spatial analysis of degraded their potential for bioenergy production, and socio-economic study to understand smallholder's perception of bioenergy production on degraded land in Indonesia. The project is supported by Korea National Institute of Forest Science (NiFOS) and collaborates with local and national institutions such as University of Muhammadiyah Palangkaraya U (UMP) in Central Kalimanan and Mulawarman University (UNMUL), in East Kalimantan, and Balai Besar Penelitian Bioeteknologi dan Pemulian Tanaman Hutan (BBPPBPTH), FORDIA in Yogyakarta.
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) It's too early to measure the impact of the project, however, data from the first two year trial plot in Buntoi village on degraded peatland shows that nyamplung has the highest (above 95%) survival rate and good growth performance compared to three other energy species: Caliandra calotyirsus (kaliandra), Glirisedia sepium (gamal) and Reutalis trisperma (kemiri sunan). This indicates that nyamplung is adaptable to water logged and high salinity which could be considered for peatland restoration. Based on this result, nyamplung is scaled up being planted on wider trial plots on degraded peatland and mineral soil in Central and East Kalimantan, respectively. The new plots also shows good survival and growth but data hasn't been analyzed as they are established in beginning of 2018.
The project has attracted other institutions both private government sectors as well as smallholders. Through this project, CIFOR established partnerships with two bioenergy companies to conduct assessment of potential bioenergy production on degraded land in Sumatera island. In addition, one large corporation is interested to to collaborate with CIFOR for offsetting their industrial CO2 emission through tree planting in South Sumatera's degraded land.
What has helped? Bringing the idea about the project to wider audiences through CIFOR website, CIFOR publication, national and international workshops and conferences, personal communication, partner outreach activities Main constraints?
-Partnership process with government institution took very long time due to their bureaucratic processes which is affected to the project implementation. We looked at the process and outcomes of restoration initiatives. For different landscapes different weights were given to biophysical and livelihood outcomes. We also assessed the sustainability of community engagement in restoration initiatives.
2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The project was designed to identify effective forest management practices (from degrading natural forests to plantation of woodlots on degraded agricultural landscapes), areas that require improvement and enabling conditions for scaling up these selected practices.
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? Main constraints? Evidence of impact We concluded that largely community members and experts at local level were happy with the conservation outcomes (in terms of reducing erosion and deforestation). But productivity of landscapes restored and economic returns to land managers were found to be much lower than the expectation of communities. Also, uncertainties in terms of tenure security were also identified as major challenges that need to be addressed.  Research examines various aspects of the relationship between tenure security, resource governance arrangements at multiple levels, and the improvements in social and environmental outcomes linked to landscape-level forest restoration initiatives. In 2017, conceptual work was carried out in conjunction with GIZ and other partners. A journal article (under review) was produced, as was a CIFOR Infobrief.

4) References
In 2018, field research on the topic was launched in Madagascar and Ethiopia, with PIM and GIZ support.
In addition, in 2017 CIFOR colleagues in the cross-cutting gender program organized a workshop and produced a study on gender factors in FLR adoption. The study is cited in the references section below.
3) results. Very early stages. Evaluation of a number of ROAM (Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology) assessments of restoration readiness found superficial consideration of tenure and governance factors. Impacts: Our collaboration with GIZ has raised awareness within GIZ of tenure and governance factors in uptake of FLR practices, leading directly to funding by GIZ projects in Madagascar and Ethiopia of support for research on tenure and governance factors in program implementation. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The project "Large-scale Ecosystem-based Adaptation in the Gambia River Basin: developing a climate resilient, natural resource-based economy" (hereafter EbA project) is one of the large-scale ecosystem-based adaptation projects in The Gambia. With a duration of six years, it will support the growing need for the communities to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. Most of the population of the country is poor and hence capacity for resilience is very low. To hasten the implementation of the resilience agenda, it is important to build national, regional and local capacities for the adaptation process to be effective and sustainable.
The project aims to restore about 7000 ha of forest lands and 3000 ha of agricultural areas. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) AgFor sought to achieve improved equitable and sustainable agroforestry and forestry-based livelihoods' systems for rural communities in Sulawesi through improving awareness, access and skills related to natural resources and agriculture; developing equitable participatory governance mechanisms; and integrating management of sustainable landscapes and ecosystems.

1d) Entry point:
Biophysical (soil, vegetation): Soil and water conservation and efficient use at plot, farm and landscape level; integration of drought tolerant and higher market value cultivars; community based silvo-pasture systems, quantitative and participatory methods for identification and targeting of context specific interventions Economics, livelihoods: Farm income remains the key basis for selecting resilient interventions; creating and strengthening crop-fodder-medicinal herbs-livestock value chains Governance, institutions: The participatory approach was facilitated by creating regional multistakeholder innovation platforms (IP), village development committees (VDCs) and commodity specific sub-committees for women. The members of an IP included local NARES, NGOs, private industry, CG centers and farmers. Linking industry with medicinal herb growers for buy back and quality check; bye laws governing common pastures and their social enforcement.

2) short description of the project (2-5 lines)
ICRISAT with partners applied an integrated systems approach for sustainable land management (SLM) in most venerable arid districts of western Rajasthan. We considered community participation and appropriate institutions as integral part of the strategy to restore production from degraded lands in profitable ways for farmers and pastoralists to sustainably improve their livelihoods and the capacity of land to produce in the future. The efforts have targeted private as well as common lands (in particular common pastures) and interactions between both.

3) Results
Impacts: positive What has helped? Critical for upscaling was the acknowledgement of heterogeneity within communities and agroecosystems. Household characterization was used to define homogenous typologies which helped to understand the potential, expectations and the limitations of the stakeholders and accordingly target SLM interventions. Ex-ante quantitative and participatory tools also helped in prioritizing and better targeting landscape and farm type specific potential interventions.
Innovation platforms and VDCs played a key role in building local capacity and were used for the identification of major constraints, possible solutions, their prioritization and implementation at district, village and hamlet level. The IPs and VDCs also provided feedback on SLM practices as part of the iterative process that allowed adjusting strategy, choice of interventions and outputs.
Main constraints?
• The selection and combination of SLM interventions implemented in systems context are location specific. It takes time until they show results. The multi-stakeholder platform development process is facilitation intensive and are challenges for adoption at scale. • Community participation which key for SLM project is a most challenging unless we fully understand the social-ecological systems and market forces. • Short term projects for SLM will have low probability of success. Evidence of impact The integrated resources management with focus on enhancing farm income and resilience resulted in increased millets and legume yields by 12-150% and common pastures' productivity by 2.5 to 4 times. Farm type specific integration of medicinal plants with linkage to industry for buy back led to doubling of farm income per ha from rainfed poor soils. Improved small ruminant value chains resulted in increased productivity and price realization by 25-30%. The increased income from the degraded land incentivized the farmers to make increased investment in land management.

1b) Driver of degradation addressed/reversed
Bundelkhand region of Central India largely suffer with high water scarcity, land degradation, poor agricultural and livestock productivity. The region receives 850 mm annual rainfall but due to high temporal variation, large amount of rainfall generate surface runoff and available moisture is lost as unproductive evaporation, resulted into poor land and water use efficiency. The soils of the region have low water holding capacity; and groundwater aquifer is characterized by poor specific yield; however groundwater is the major source of the water to meet its domestic and agriculture demands.
In this watershed, 12 low-cost water-harvesting structures nearly with 100,000 cubic meter storage capacity were constructed. Moreover, efforts were also taken towards various agro-forestry interventions (e.g., teak plantation on field bunds, intercropping of crop-orcharge system, fodder grasses on field bunds, ber-budding, rejuvenation of old-fruit trees with improved grafting technique, etc.) and productivity enhancement interventions. Water harvesting interventions increased groundwater table (2-5 m) across the watershed boundary; intensified cropping intensity (from 80-100% to 150-180%); increased crop yield (by 50-80%) and household income (50-200%) in four year period. It is realized that decentralized water harvesting technique (rejuvenating traditional rainwater harvesting system and other rainwater harvesting interventions) is the key to address the issues of water scarcity, land degradation and can strengthen rural livelihood system which need to scaled-up to unlock the potential of the Bundelkhand region.
1c) Stage of the forest transition curve Forested landscape Agriculture: Parasai-Sindh watershed is the agriculture dominating areas with more than 90% land is under agricultural use. Agroforestry: Low-water requiring tree-species, for example, teak which is deciduous in nature and highly suitable for the region was planted along the field bunds and also as intercropping in different crops (groundnut). Moreover, ber-trees (berries) those were old and poor yielding were rejuvenated by grafting techniques benefited farmers.

3) Results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? Main constraints?
Evidence of impact This watershed has fully developed as a model site of learning for all interested in sustainable rainwater management in rainfed regions. The project has enabled the community an impressive 100,000 cubic meter storage capacity resulted into harvesting more than 200,000 cubic meter surface runoff every year. The spillover of this massive effort has resulted in significant groundwater recharge. This is also evident in terms of increased crop intensification (more than 100 ha fallow lands has been converted into productive agricultural land), better crop diversification, higher household income and such other socio-economic and ecosystem benefits. After realizing the impact of these interventions, more than 2000 visitors from India and abroad including a number of dignitaries (policy makers and many officials of development departments) have visited this watershed within last two years. This initiative has shown the potential of rainwater harvesting interventions in Bundelkhand region which could be scaled up for creating larger impacts and helping the communities for overcoming critical challenges plaguing this region. The project was developed to test a specific combination of technical and institutional change methods to increase irrigation water productivity and profitability in African smallholder irrigation schemes. The two-pronged approach of this project consists of smart water management (SWM) tools; the Chameleon and FullStop Wetting front Detector (WFD) that were introduced to monitor soil moisture and nutrients to facilitate farmer learning to increase productivity. The chameleon tool measures moisture at different depths in the soil profile and displays the result as coloured lights; blue (wet), green (moist) or red (dry) and the Full Stop soil wetting front detector and solute collection device helped in monitoring nutrients in the soil. Farmers used these to learn the best combination of fertiliser application and irrigation for their crops on their soils, and so increased their yields. Simultaneously, Agricultural Innovation Platforms (AIPs) were introduced to bring key stakeholders together to develop solutions to a range of challenges: from scheme management to input supply, production and marketing. The core premise behind the project is that small-scale communal irrigation schemes have failed to realise returns on investment. A critical reason for this is that these irrigation systems have not been recognized as complex socio-ecological systems operating under a diversity of constraints.

4) References
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? Main constraints? Evidence of impact Evidence from schemes in Zimbabwe indicate that the SWM tools that were introduced by the project are people-centred, allowing experiential learning suitable for small-scale irrigators (Moyo et al., forthcoming). Although only 23% and 33% of the irrigators at Silalatshani (n=84) and Mkoba (n=54) schemes, respectively owned the tools, awareness of these is at 90%. Irrigators have a clear understanding that the tools help improve irrigation efficiency: that is, to use water more wisely and make it possible for farmers to irrigate at the point of need as well as creating awareness of the soil moisture content within the root zone. 73% of households at Silalatshani and 46% at Mkoba reduced irrigation frequency. Farmers are now irrigating only every second week rather than every week, using fewer siphons for shorter durations. While this reduced the total amount of water used, it also saved time/labour; now often invested in irrigation infrastructure maintenance, agronomic management activities, or other income related activities.
The tools created an ideal learning system, providing much needed knowledge to small-scale irrigators and irrigators also understand that the tools help improve soil fertility management. Both yields and income increased despite reducing the water supply and a reduction in fertiliser. Approximately half the farmers reduced their fertilizer use, as nutrients are not leached beyond the root zone. Yields of major irrigated crops increased by 25% or more for 86% and 76% of households at Mkoba and Silalatshani, respectively, while 43% and 56% of these irrigators report income increases of 25% or more. An example outcome of the project efforts by ICRISAT has been reported in the blogs and publications like the ones below: − http://news.trust.org/item/20170824133536-1vboy/ − https://wle.cgiar.org/african-smallholders-can-double-their-yields-half-water The improved profitability and reliability of supply has reduced conflicts, both among irrigators and within households, and resulted in an increased willingness to engage in collective actions such as system maintenance, fee payment and fence building. This project clearly illustrates that there are relatively simple interventions to increase water use efficiency, reduce nutrient leaching and increase crop yields, if these technologies are embedded in a larger learning environment where other important feedback mechanisms such as labour constraints and market opportunities are contextualised. While these interventions in six schemes have succeeded with direct involvement from project staff, new research has now commenced in the Transforming Irrigation in Southern Africa project (LWR/2016/137) to learn and assess how these measures can be scaled out and up. There is a need to understand how to enable each national government irrigation agency to apply research lessons to their policies and practices. Further, engagement with multilateral African institutions is underway to draw on the research findings to improve their policies and practices.
However, an external review of the overall project found that the research has enabled smallholder farmers and related stakeholders to 'achieve success in a traditionally difficult sector'. A key achievement has been that at five schemes, yield has improved two-to four-fold and farmer incomes have increased. In four schemes, unused irrigation plots covering an average of 27% of the command area were brought back into production. The frequency of water application was reduced by two-thirds at five schemes, and as a result, the supply of water to canal tail-end farmers improved so that they can produce crops reliably. As much as 70% of labour was saved from reduced irrigation frequencies and this time was often redirected into more intensive agriculture or small businesses. In focus groups the farmers reported greater social harmony among farmers and within households. Farmers began accessing certified seeds and using quality fertilisers at most of the schemes. A number of more profitable crops and crop varieties were grown. Through the AIPs, farmers enhanced access to crop processing facilities and markets. Maintenance of five of the irrigation schemes by farmers increased. Surveys showed that approximately 25% of the more than 1,700 scheme farmers were directly engaged in the project in the three countries, and another 55% received scheme-level aggregated benefits see: http://aciar.gov.au/files/fsc_2013_006_final_report.pdf  2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The primary mandate of the project is to create tools for scaling land restoration in drylands, by using action research to generate evidence for success/failure of options in different contexts (ecological, social). In pastoral sites, institutions are characterized and supported to improve management, as coupled with on-the-ground experimental range restoration trials designed to inform feasible upscaling to entire communal grazing lands. The effectiveness of rangeland management institutions is being assessed via remote sensing. In the one highland site, Amhara, Ethiopia, on-the-ground experimental exclosure improvement trials inform local institutional decisions on exclosure improvement and management.
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) -All of the above 2) Short description of the project (2-5 lines) The research project looks at land restoration as an integral part of land governance reform processes. It highlights the need to incorporate customary land rights in the current discussion on land governance reforms in Myanmar, towards rights-based approaches in land governance. Taking Karen State as a case study, it brings to light the farmers' and local community's role as grass-roots forces shaping and reshaping the overall process of state transformation.  The research highlights key policy gaps in the government's efforts to achieve 70% of forest cover in 2020. It shows that this target can only be achieved if the current problem pertaining to the overlapping boundaries of forest and agriculture lands is resolved. It argues that resolving these boundaries is not only important for the country's land management, it is also crucial to get farmers' buy in in land restoration efforts. As approximately 20% of farm households in the country (mostly the poor oftentimes with no access to lowland agricultural land) is located in protected forest area, it is pertinent that forest protection target is achieved without further marginalization of the poor (by ethnicity and gender). The research explores how collective farming can simultaneously drive agricultural productivity without further marginalising smallholders who individually cannot participate in the transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture proposed by the government. Policy, legal and administrative frameworks are studied and linked to on-ground experiments in collective farming involving smallholder and landless households to identify strengths and weaknesses in the current adoption of collective farming.

3) Results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? The research has highlighted the critical gulf between policies and strategies that position collective action (groups and cooperatives) as primary mechanisms for delivering rural development investments on the one hand, and the paucity of both capacities and coordination mechanisms to address the muti-dimensional practical challenges of implementing collective approaches on the ground. Main constraints? Planning processes heavily under-estimate the resources required to build selfsustaining collective action entities. An absence of a systematic monitoring and evaluation mechanism prevents communication of lessons from field to centralized policymakers and planners. The sectoral silos perpetuate fragmented extension when members of collective initiatives require integrated technical backstopping given the multiple variables (e.g. skills, equipment, irrigation, inputs and markets) needed for impacting productivity, and concurrently struggle amongst themselves to navigate diverse entrenched social identities and resulting power asymmetries. Evidence of impact: None at present as the study has been recently completed.

4) References
Dupre-Harbord, Justin, de Silva, Sanjiv and Raut Manita. Collective Farming for Improving Small Scale Agriculture Performance in Nepal: A Review. Project Report.

Restoration project
Name of respondent and e-mail: Marlène Elias -marlene.elias@cgiar. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) Trials to test the cost-efficiency of different restoration interventions (from natural regeneration over assisted natural regeneration and low diversity to high diversity plantings) to restore native forest vegetation on lands in different stages of degradation (very degraded to secondary forest) 3) results -still at data collection stage -trees take a while to grow Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? Strong collaboration with private sector Main constraints? None Evidence of impact The dam building company responsible for carrying out restoration of dry forest on >10,000 has used the experimental plots to showcase current restoration efforts and is using the experimental approach as a reference for guiding future restoration approaches. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) Along a gradient from enabling to disabling conditions, we want to assess the prospects of diverse public, private and public-private restoration initiatives in four Central American countries, where a tipping point has been reached in Costa Rica while Guatemala, Honduras and Panama lag behind to varying degrees. In particular, we want to better understand the interplay between regulations and incentives provided through political-legal frameworks on the one hand, and private initiatives and investments on the other. We also seek for insight into the political economy underlying the official policy and rhetoric and what actually drives decisions on the ground. The findings will inform realistic approaches to effective landscape restoration in Central America and beyond.
3) Results -some data available, most data yet to be collected Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? Main constraints? Evidence of impact 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) Our goals are 1. to assess the maximum mitigation potential of Latin American landscapes in a 40year period through the two most carbon-intense restoration activities: forest expansion from nonassisted second-growth forests, and peatland avoided emissions from fire and drainage, 2. to understand how this potential is spatially distributed, and 3. to contrast our estimates against other land use mitigation options. We produce a 250-m map of forest biomass accumulation potential (BAP) (Mg.ha -1 ), synonym of Mitigation potential. To create the map we use the Atlas of Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities (AFLRO) from WRI which contrasts current deforested and degraded forests against their potential baselines. We assign carbon densities to the existing range of forest biomes and conditions using a carbon density map For what? Quantify carbon sink potential, if original vegetation was restored. Ex-ante Carbon assessments in restoration projects, as well as quantitative support for Bonn Challenge, NDCs, NAMAs pledges in terms of GHGs.

4) Results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) We hope these results will help raise awareness that mitigation potentials are lower than initially thought. Our study shows an interesting reduction of 30% in mitigation potential when considering safeguards and reversal potentials. What has helped? Main constraints? Evidence of impact 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) We developed and applied several methods for analyzing, modeling and mapping the effects of forest cover change on multiple ecosystem services and their implications for human wellbeing. We also developed methods to analyze the tradeoffs between ecosystem services resulting from changes in landscape management.

2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines)
We reviewed the existing knowledge on the impacts of forest restoration on water flows, soil erosion, soil mass movements and local to regional climate using meta-analysis or systematic review approaches. Findings can guide decision-making on land management and restoration. 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) A local practice of enclosing the degraded areas as a collective property as well as private plots was adopted with agroforestry practices playing vital role in boosting the supply of wood and non-wood products to the agropastoral community. The practice selected is called Ngitili -it is a traditional fodder management system widely practiced by pastoral communities of Tanzania. 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) Three SWAT models were constructed with spatiotemporally dynamic livestock populations, to provide for modeling of grazing management. The models were constructed using collaborative processes with resident members of local institutions and regional partners (APESS, a Burkinabe NGO, and Tana River County), and all simulation scenarios were created based on spatial stakeholder inputs. Local and regional partners' involvement in constructing the model and vetting of the model results enabled alignment of local knowledge with numerical simulation modeling. For what? -(a) Government and NGO technical staff: for consultation with communities on rangeland management, and (b) provincial and county officials in formulating regional grazing management legislation, direction of regional policy implementation, and to provide evidence to national policymakers underscoring management decisions and policies.
What has helped? -Use of local knowledge in model construction and scenario development.
Main constraints? -Appendix 2. Answers to the survey -p.52 The results require long presentations to farmers and herders. Without ongoing engagement there is no guarantee of long-term influence of the results in management and policy. Limited resources available for model evaluation and refinement mean that uncertainty remains an ethical concern for management recommendations and policy formulation. 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) G-Range is an intermediate complexity simulation model primarily useful for global scale application over long time horizons. Its biogeochemical foundation from CENTURY is applied according to dynamic spatial cover of herbaceous and woody plants, and bare ground. Its main purpose is to capture and project rates for major ecosystem processes and services, especially forage and browse production, according to scenarios describing changes in management, climate, and atmospheric CO2.

3) Effective use Where? -Rangelands globally-deserts to tundra By whom? -Researchers
For what? -Use in formulating policy decisions based on projected future rangeland condition and long-term system production potential, data inputs to other modeling frameworks (e.g., IMPACT), among other uses 4) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) -NA What has helped? -For rangelands, integrating biogeochemistry and vegetation change is essential for long-term projections, since each is affected independently by global change drivers, and each influences one another to create non-linear dynamics in rangeland systems. This is the core advantage of G-Range over other existing ecosystem simulators applicable to rangelands.
Main constraints? -Appendix 2. Answers to the survey -p.54 The main utility of the current implementation of G-Range is large-scale, long-term forecasts useful to decision-making at global, sometimes regional, and in some cases national scale. Using the model for specific questions at fine scales can involve significant tweaking to parameterization and input layers to limit uncertainty in model outputs.
Evidence of impact -Primarily international public goods, namely publication of G-Range forecasts to 2050 and documentation. 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) To develop an innovative, climate-smart restoration toolbox that will support decision-making to plan and implement restoration interventions from plot to landscape level using native tree genetic resources. The project will also increase human capacity for climate-smart forest restoration in Peru.  2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) To develop an innovative, climate-smart restoration toolbox that will support decision-making to plan and implement restoration interventions from plot to landscape level using native tree genetic resources in Burkina Faso. Particular emphasis will be place in documenting characterizing food tree species, for their inclusion in the restoration tool.

5) References
3) Effective use Where? Burkina Faso By whom? National Tree Seed Center, forest practitioners, national and international projects and initiatives on forest restoration, in selecting species and adapted seed sources to be used 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) To develop an innovative, climate-smart restoration toolbox that will support decision-making to plan and implement restoration interventions from plot to landscape level using native tree genetic resources. The project will also increase human capacity for climate-smart forest restoration in Cameroon. 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) This is a review study with two parts: a review of actual GEF and World Bank funded projects on restoration as well as a rigorous literature review. We investigate whether and to what extent restoration focused projects are linked to food security, nutrition and livelihood's safety net and adaptation, both in theory and in practice.

3) Effective use
3) Used: This is a study done for background and context to understand how restoration projects have thus far operated. It is on-going. When completed, we will develop recommendations which we hope will be used by national policy makers as well as international organizations engaged in restoration work.  2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) We reviewed how tropical reforestation (or more generally restoration) can contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation and proposed an integrated framework to assess or design "climatesmart restoration". We also analyzed the potential and the current integration of adaptation and mitigation in forest policies and projects in several countries or project portfolios.

3) Used
Where? In multiple climate change projects on the ground (Peru and global portfolios), multiple countries (policy analysis in Peru, Brazil, Indonesia), and globally (climate funds). By whom? Scientists with decision makers For what? For understanding better how restoration can be integrated into climate change policies. For guiding decision makers in analyzing the contribution of restoration to climate change strategies and managing the tradeoffs between adaptation and mitigation.

4) Results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? We have widely communicated on this topic of adaptation-mitigation integration at different levels. Main constraints? Adaptation and mitigation have traditionally been separated. Some discussions on adaptation-mitigation synergies are seen as too conceptual by some decision makers. Evidence of impact : Our publications on this topic were cited more than 40 times in a UNEP report on joint adaptation and mitigation in agriculture and forestry (2016) and cited multiple times in other important documents, such as the Peruvian strategy on forests and climate change (2016), an IUCN document on "Synergies between climate mitigation and adaptation in forest landscape restoration" (2015), and an IUFRO-WRI project flyer on "Forest landscape restoration as a strategy for mitigating and adapting to climate change" (2015). 1d) Entry point: Our approach is by design multi-disciplinary so our R4D framework attempts to integrate entry-points 1) Biophysical (soil, vegetation) 2) Economics, livelihoods 3) Governance, institutions (ranked from 1 to 3 if there are multiple objectives)

4) References
2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) Flagship approach (high level implemented in suite of projects) Strategic efforts to boost cereal productivity can increase smallholders' food and income security, while also improving livelihoods, natural resource integrity, equity, nutrition and health, and resilience against biophysical or socioeconomic shocks. These are all urgent development priorities. However, most smallholder farmers' livelihoods do not depend exclusively on cereals. Their farming systems are characterized by complex strategies that integrate crop, tree and livestock production, with increasing reliance on off-farm income, and a strong risk management component that can hamper the adoption of innovations that focus on cereals alone. Our FP4 work encompasses (a) production of more food, feed, fuel and/or fiber per hectare, labor and/or capital used, by closing yield gaps and increasing yield per unit of time and area; (b) conservation of critical agroecosystem regulatory and provisioning services; and (c) farming system resilience to shocks and stresses, including those posed by climate change and market shocks. It also seeks to address social justice, gender equity, and youth inclusivity and human well-being 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) This is a systematic review on governance in restoration as well as a rigorous literature review. We investigate best-practice principles of good governance in restoration projects, the institutional dynamics, development challenges and to what incentives are required for restoration, both in theory and in practice.
3) Used: This is an ongoing study to provide the context for understanding trends in governance of restoration projects and best practices. When complete, we will advance recommendations which we hope will be used by policy makers to guide decision-making on land management and restoration work.  Since that time the process has been piloted by a number of organisations in Ethiopia, and then scaled-up to large scale areas of the pastoral areas through a USAID-funded pastoralism-focused project. In 2017-18 ILRI conducted a review of the implementation of PRM in Ethiopia. ILRI is providing technical support to the piloting of PRM in Kenya and Tanzania through an EU-grant to the International Land Coalition.

3) Used
Currently used extensively in rangelands of Ethiopia, and being piloted in Kenya and Tanzania. Potential to be use in all rangelands. Mainly supported by NGOs as has not been mainstreamed/institutionalized in government policy and legislation though government involved in its implementation on the ground.

4) results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) Impacts have included the development of multi-stakeholder bodies for management of rangelands. In some places cooperatives rather than customary institutions have been developed, which have become more economic/business oriented rather than playing a management role. Some NGOs have implemented PRM at landscape level, which has worked from a higher-level planning and governance perspective, but has left-out its implementation and 'ownership' by communities on the ground. Other NGOs have focused on the local level, and compromised the higher-level landscape planning which has resulted in some secondary users of the rangeland being missed out of decision-making processes. Overall women's involvement in PRM has been good and their increased role in natural resource management and related decision-making processes is highlighted as a key result. In all cases of implementation to date there has been little attention paid at national level to instill supporting policy and legislation -and therefore there is still a gap here. 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) Between 2010 and 2015, the Sustainable Rangeland Management Project (SRMP) assisted nine villages to carry out VLUP. Joint village planning was piloted successfully across three of these villages, leading to their protection through certification of a shar ed grazing area called Olengapa, found in Kiteto district, Manyara region. SRMP has now entered its third phase (2016 -2020) with the financial support of International Fund for Agricultural Development of the United Nations, Irish Aid, the International Land Coalition (ILC), ILRI and the government of Tanzania. ILRI is managing this third phase. This phase is focusing on the scaling-up of the joint VLUP approach in several new clusters of villages, as well as expanding the original ones. This includes the s ecuring of grazing areas through the provision of group CCROs (Certificates of Customary Rights of Occupancy) and improving the management of the areas by the established Livestock Keepers Association. ILRI is also undertaking action research on issues such as rangeland rehabilitation, and improvement and intensification of rangeland and livestock productivity; as well as research on pastoral women and access to resources and land. A new ILC-supported project started in 2018 is piloting participatory rangeland management (PRM) in the secured grazing areas -ILRI is providing technical support to this project.
3) Used Joint village land use planning is used in clusters of villages that share resources such as grazing or water. Specific to Tanzania and supported by facilitating policy and legislation there is opportunity to transfer the concepts of the approach elsewhere. Being a governmental process, it is implemented by government with local communities, often supported by NGOs.

4) Results
Appendix 2. Answers to the survey -p.74 Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) The process is long requiring strong investment of time and resources, and the facilitation of negotiations between different land users. The community and local government (including village government institutions) are in the driving seat however, so there is strong local ownership. The process requires agreement over land uses which can stir up disagreement in the short-term but should lead to agreement and resolution of often long-standing confusions and sometimes conflicts over land use. The process leads to the establishment of management bodies ready for improving management of the rangeland (grazing and other resources), increases security of tenure, and incentives to invest in the land including rangeland rehabilitation.
A facilitating policy and legislation have been important. 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) This report presents a baseline of the national seed supply systems in 7 Latin American countries, drawing on knowledge from members of LAFORGEN, the Latin American Network of Forest Genetic Resources, as well as other experts. The resulting baselines were qualitatively assessed against a set of indicators for a fit-for purpose seed system in order to identify gaps in current systems and set priorities for action.

3) Used
Where? Analysis carried out in Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina but system of indicators for any country By whom? To be provided to governments to identify weaknesses in their systems, options for horizontal knowledge transfer and as a system for monitoring advances For what? Understand the status quo, identify weaknesses in their systems, options for horizontal knowledge transfer and as a system for monitoring advances 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) This is a PhD project which will develop indicators of genetic diversity of native tree species and build a theoretical framework for planning genetic conservation units for native tree species in SE Asia, as a foundation of resilient seed systems. It will also examine the social barriers to resilient communitybased seed system establishment for restoration. 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) This report will present a baseline of the national seed supply systems in 10 countries members of the sub-Saharan African Forest Genetic Resources Programme (SAFORGEN). The resulting baselines will be assessed against a set of indicators for a fit-for purpose seed system in order to identify gaps in current systems and set priorities for action. 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) The research looks at land restoration as an integral part of land governance reform processes. Putting local community central in land governance practices, it argues that land restoration efforts (e.g. reforestation, forest protection) will have actual significance only if the latter is supported by local community living in the surrounding areas. It highlights the need to incorporate customary land rights in the current discussion on land governance reforms in Myanmar towards rights-based approaches in land governance.

3) Used
Deriving from legal pluralism research, the concept of rights-based approaches in land governance has been applied by various civil society organizations in Myanmar to highlight the importance of customary land rights and the need to incorporate this into National Land Use Policy implementation.

4) Results
Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? The research has helped shed light on the National Land Use Policy implementation framework for the country-wide implementation in general and within the context of ethnic state in particular Main constraints? Unclear messages from the government on the direction of reform processes and ongoing armed conflict in ethnic states make it difficult to link national level policy formulation processes with local community's development needs and aspirations Evidence of impact: Key findings from the research has been used by international donors to help guide the ongoing process of land governance reform in general, and in informing institutional framework for National Land Use Policy implementation in particular.   Figure 1 "FORLAND Vision").

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
-Design of project-specific, tailored platforms that take into account the specific needs and requirement of each end-user. FORLAND Restoration will be developed as an easy to use and smart tool based on the day-to-day experiences of end users.
-Inclusion of reliable prospective simulation features based on decision makers' choices. This objective implies the identification of needs and exploration of scenarios with the end-users, to identify and develop appropriate modeling technologies, and to design features allowing end-users to explore various assumptions and simulations themselves to foster transformative change.
-FORLAND will be marketed as a "Service as a Software" (SaaS). As such, FORLAND Restoration aims to facilitate collaborative work and stakeholders' consultation, and promote transparency during the feasibility and implementation stages of AFOLU projects through the use of a multi-stakeholder participative approach.
-Develop FORLAND Restoration as a web access/web server platform to facilitate the handling of large amount of data to process and stock, particularly due to the utilization of remote sensing data. This Demonstrator is an opportunity to implement different pilots in promising markets both in Europe and emerging countries, with high potential for replication, and to contribute to the growing pool of climate-smart solutions and innovations in restoration initiatives.

OUTPUTS:
-tailored FORLAND web-platforms delivered to the end-user; -the FORLAND service package to accompany the web-platforms and allowing an ongoing stakeholder engagement throughout the restoration process; 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines)

CALL :
The Project aims to mobilize diverse agricultural biological resources to support targeted restoration interventions through diversifying farming systems and landscapes. The innovative approach is to use food trees and leguminous annual crops for landscape restoration, which will not only bring ecological benefits to rural communities, but also directly improve food and nutrition security of poor smallholder households through the food products harvested and increase resilience through diversification of livelihood options. 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) The map is available in different formats and is accompanied by an extensive documentation of the floristic, physiognomic and other characteristics of the different vegetation types and useful woody species. It is complemented by a species selection tool, which can be used to 'find the right tree for the right place' and potential distribution maps of the useful woody species that occur in eastern Africa. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) This project focused on investigating the changes in ecosystem services, hydrological variables and livelihood following the establishment of exclosures on communal grazing lands; and identifying the incentives and requirements that support local communities to adopt exclosures.

3) results
The outputs/outcomes/impacts achieved through this project include: (1) Increase in income and diversification of livelihood -The capacity of 127 women and 200 men for integrating income generating activities into exclosures has been enhanced through training. The women headed households engaged in the production of sheep indicated increased income and ability to send their children to school. Landless youth demonstrated increased income and expansion of livestock fattening program. (2) Achieving equity in benefit sharing and increasing participation in grazing land management -The provision of incentives and short-term trainings ensure equity in sharing of benefits obtained from the establishment and management of exclosures. Also, incentives increased the participation of all members of the community in exclosure management. (3) Reducing dependence on NRM -Short-term incentives and capacity building has led to reductions in the degradation of natural resources in two ways. On the one hand, engaging local communities in income generating activities is reducing dependence on natural resources and consequently protect natural resources from degradation and enhance/maintain ecosystem services. On the other hand, integrating income generating activities with exclosures enhance the short-term benefits of the interventions, which consequently support the local communities to adopt and protect long-term conservation approaches such as exclosures.
Engaging local communities from the beginning of the project through assignment of focal person (s), participating in action research and organizing feedback workshops is key for the success. We learned that addressing local communities' concerns and integrating NRM interventions with income generating activities are required to expand and sustain NRM interventions. Ensuring equity is key to increase the participation of local communities and sustaining the interventions.
Lack of finance to integrate income generating activities with exclosures at a larger scale is one of the main constraints faced during the implementation of the project. In our case all if the three have more or less equal weight because both of them need to be considered at the same time if restoration is to succeed in a sustainable manner.

Restoration project
2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The project aims to create multifunctional climate-smart landscape through the implementation of complementary land and water management practices following the landscape continuum. Based on this, develop scaling framework/recommendation domain to scale technologies across space.
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) Successful implementation in the areas we operated. What has helped? The government policy that encourages communities to participate in community work tremendously facilitated our work. Main constraints? Shortage of financial resources to implement options at scale. The community have huge land and water related problems (erosion, shortage of water for irrigation etc.). Implementing practices to effect these costs a lot -thus there is bug mismatch between what the community expects and what we can do -and some donors also don't allow us spend resources for 'development' oriented activities. We tried to address this by collaborating with NGOs and development actors.
Evidence of impact Visit watersheds as 'seeing is believing' 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The project is located in the Upper Tana Basin of Kenya. It is a public-private partnership that includes the Nature Conservancy and CIAT. Forests and wetlands in the Upper Tana play an important role in maintaining water quality and quantity, providing areas where runoff water and sediment can be stored and filtered naturally. The challenges to water security will likely grow as climate change brings increasingly unpredictable rainfall. The impact of landscape restoration on incomes and livelihoods of farmers was previously not well understood. This project endeavors to translate biophysical data into socio-economic metrics with specific indicators under consideration.
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) Results from our monitoring data in relation to soil erosion and the associated intervention measures indicated that there was an order of magnitude of increase in runoff for areas without sustainable land management with about 40% increases in sediment losses. This underpins the importance of landscape stewardship at the farm level which translates to wider influences at the landscape scale.
What has helped? The existence of a functional partnership with the water resources users association and the private sector have been very critical to the success of ongoing efforts to control upstream soil erosion from the Tana Basin to downstream areas.
Main constraints? There are several challenges associated with the management of partnerships that involve the public and private sector entities. Currently, there are challenges associated with funding upstream activities and interventions that reduce erosion that involve the smallholder communities.
Evidence of impact: Results from our monitoring data in relation to soil erosion and the associated intervention measures indicated that there was an order of magnitude of increase in runoff for areas without sustainable land management with about 40% increases in sediment losses. This underpins the importance of landscape stewardship at the farm level which translates to wider influences at the landscape scale. The areas that had interventions specifically grass strips & terraces indicated better sedimentation retention and water yields of 30% and 45% respectively. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines) The CIAT SOC APP is a soil organic content computation tool that computes SOC concentration and sequestration of a given soil, and outputs the results in graphic and table formats. The tool is openaccess to be use by individuals, governments, NGOs, researchers, communities, and others. We are happy to share the source code upon enquiry.

3) results
Impacts: There has been quite some debate about the scope for mitigating climate change by soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration. However, it seems there is a general lack of understanding of quantities and the time-dimension, as well as the possible contribution that SOC sequestration can play. Our tool allows any user to calculate SOC sequestration potentials in space and time. The underlying idea has been used in various publications and has been presented widely. We have not true impact yet to report.
What has helped? -Main constraints?
The major constraint for using this tool is that it isn't a crystal ball for gazing into the future and predicting actual SOC sequestration. The user still has to have some evidence and data on SOC that are needed as input data. This sometimes is a surprise to the users, who tend to think that this tool "will tell it all".
Evidence of impact: None so far. A series of studies were conducted in four regions of Ethiopia, exploring the scale, effectiveness and opportunity of SLM -SWC (Sustainable land management -soil and water conservation) practices promoted through national policy, research and policy actors during the last 40+ years. Aspects of agronomy/crop productivity, local environmental impact, and farmer response and impact data were collected in individual land restoration initiative's implemented at plot, farm and landscape levels. Landscape impacts on water and sediment loss, as well as habitat improvement needs more analyses of these evolving and intensified agro-ecological landscapes. Incentives for farmers need further development, for more effective and rapid uptake of best practices.

#67
1c) Stage of the forest transition curve Most of the land restoration projected are implemented in the agricultural and degraded forest Forested landscape 1d) Entry point: Land restoration projected assessed in this case study were focused on restoring soil and vegetation (biophysical) while improving the livelihood of communities.
2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) The studies analyzed land restoration efforts in various regions of Ethiopia, which fall into the following categories: farmland management, hillside management and gully rehabilitation practices, including check dams and cut-off drains.

3) Used
This paper provides details of land restoration investments in Ethiopia over the past 20 years. It presents land restoration practices and estimates the level of SWC investments in Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray regions of Ethiopia. The results of the studies are important for policy makers, development organizations and donors, and encourage further investments in land restoration.

4) Results
Adding up the past three years of land restoration interventions across the four regions of Ethiopia where most SWC practices are implemented, the total area covered by new farm and hillside terraces alone would total 6.4 Mha (nearly 20% of Ethiopia's agricultural land). The study also shows that these practices involved both paid and unpaid labor, together representing an estimated investment of more than ETB 25 billion (or approximately USD 1.2 billion) per year over the past 10 years. The use of physical SWC structures alone are not effective to contribute to yield increase and farmer gains. SWC -SLM technologies at the plot level need to be combined with biological management, such as rotation , grass strips and-or planting permanent woody species at strategic points (trees, bushes). Impacts of these plot changes are still poorly understood at the landscape level for a range of ecosystem services including surface-groundwater storage and flows, habitat and species diversity , and sediment flows . Climate change of rainfall and temperatures may undermine current and past SLM efforts and may require more pro-active land use change to transform farmer and rural livelihoods 2) Short description of the approach (2-5 lines) The project to test evaluate climate smart agricultural (CSA) practices at farm and landscape levels using two sites from Africa RISING integrated land and water management sites. The overall goal is to build livelihoods and improve resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change through large scale adoption of CSA technologies and practices. 2) short description of the project (2-5 lines): Designs the analytical methods for assessment of economics of land degradation. Then the model shows sources of data and demonstrates computations of ELD using 12 case study countries.
3) results Impacts: positive, failure, unexpected impacts (positive or negative) What has helped? Main constraints? Evidence of impact Impacts: ELD book used to formulate SDG 15 about zero net land degradation. ELD approach goes beyond the conventional market values of only crop and livestock products lost due to land degradation but seeks to capture all major terrestrial losses of ecosystem services. Twelve carefully selected national case studies provide rich information about various local contexts of cost of land degradation as evaluated by local communities, drivers of land degradation, and amenable strategies for sustainable land management. The 12 case studies countries used include: Argentina, Bhutan, China, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Malawi, Niger, Russia, Senegal, Tanzania and Uzbekistan. The 12 countries account for 45% of the global population and are representative of all low-and middleincome countries.
About 526,000 copies downloaded from the website so far. The book is among the most downloaded Springer books. AFLi2 aims to achieve improve livelihoods and enhance forest and landscape management through quantifying and evaluating performance of generic agroforestry options and tree species and suitability of different agroforestry options, understanding the ecological and economic values of degraded forests, drivers of land-use change and develop cross-sector planning approaches for landscapes, integrating forests and agroforestry lands uses; and capacity building.

3) Results
• Seven agroforestry trials established in the first phase of the project, which were considered promising systems, have been evaluated.  2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) The study identified and measured key indicators of land and soil health in order to understand drivers of degradation and monitor changes over time using the Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF) methodology. The LDSF provides a field protocol for measuring indicators of the "health" of an ecosystem, including vegetation cover and structure, land use, land degradation, soil health, including soil organic carbon content, tree and shrub biodiversity, and infiltration capacity.

3) Effective use
Where? Mai Son district, Son La province, Vietnam By whom? ICRAF Vietnam For what? Measuring land health and estimating soil erosion prevalence for Northwest Vietnam 4) Results -Providing in-the-field training for participants including ICRAF researchers, research partners, farmers on the LDSF methodology -Assessment of landscape biophysical variables including topography, cultivation, land ownership, vegetation structure and land use, tree and shrub diversity and densities, erosion prevalence, soil water conservation measures.
-Map of estimation of soil erosion prevalence using field data and LANDSAT satellite imagery -Continued analysis on these data to identify drivers of degradation and linkages between variables is ongoing. Predictive maps of key indicators of soil and land health will also be generated and shared.  The overarching goal of the project was to reduce food insecurity and improve the livelihoods of poor people living in African drylands by restoring degraded land, and returning it to effective and sustainable tree, crop and livestock production, thereby increasing land profitability and landscape and livelihood resilience.
Restoration of degraded land can be a key pathway to achieving food security and reducing poverty for some of the most vulnerable people living in Africa's drylands. Landscape restoration is a process that aims to restore ecosystem functions and enhance human well-being. Restoration options need to be tailored according to biophysical and socio-economic conditions.
The research in development approach was applied to scale farmer-centered land restoration options by working with NGOs and development initiatives to implement planned comparisons on farmers' fields to test which options work best for each context.
The Integrating Gender and Nutrition within Agricultural Extension Services (INGENAES) toolkit2 was employed to understand the potential gender-related impacts of tree planting and planting basins.
3) Results: Over 15,000 farming households implemented on-farm restoration options in the four countries. All households were monitored and the performance of the restoration options were tracked, all data are curated and available on Harvard Dataverse.
In Kenya, households increased yields of maize and legumes 2 to 5 times in planting basins, increased on-farm tree cover and diversity, reduced on-farm erosion prevalence, increase soil fertility, and increased livelihood options.
Appendix 2. Answers to the survey -p.128 In Kenya, Increased tree cover with > 30,000 seedlings of seven tree species planted in home gardens, croplands and terraces.
In Kenya, over 75% of farmers already engaged in the Planting Basin Planned Comparison in Kenya expressed excitement to continue to expand the number of basins on their farm. Farmers are reporting increased food security and income from increased yields.
Planting basins may shift labour between men and women, increasing women's involvement in land preparation activities and their already heavy workloads, but potentially also increasing women's autonomy over these activities and allowing for earlier planting.
A key innovation within the project was to bridge the knowledge gaps between stakeholder groups to ensure the sharing of experience, data and evidence to more effectively scale lessons learned around restoration, using nested communities of practice.
Impacts: Increased food security, increased livelihood options, increased farm resilience, increased autonomy of women, increased engagement of women and formation of women farming groups, increased awareness about on-farm options to restore degraded land.
What has helped? Nested Communities of Practice for knowledge sharing and co-learning within and between stakeholders. Planned comparisons.
Main constraints? Labour and shifting climate.
Evidence of impact: curated datasets monitoring the performance and uptake of the restoration interventions (household surveys and biophysical monitoring) 2) Short description of the tool (2-5 lines) The Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF) was developed as a response to a lack of methods for systematic landscape-level assessment of soil and ecosystem health. The methodology is designed to provide a biophysical baseline at landscape level, and a monitoring and evaluation framework for assessing processes of land degradation and the effectiveness of rehabilitation measures (recovery) over time. The framework provides field protocols for measuring indicators of the "health" of an ecosystem, including vegetation cover, structure and floristic composition, historic land use, visible signs of soil degradation, and soil physical and chemical characteristics. Due to the complex nature of ecosystems, multiple perspectives are needed to understand ecosystem processes, and variability of ecological variables at different spatial scales. The nested hierarchical sampling design used in the LDSF is useful for developing predictive models with global coverage, while maintaining local relevance.
3) context where tested/applied (a paragraph) The LDSF has been applied in over 30 countries, in over 250-100 km2 sites. It can be used to support the design of future restoration activities, programs and projects. We hope that this document will help upscale restoration efforts and deliver enhanced impact from our CGIAR research.